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The donkey or ass, Equus africanus asinus, is a domesticated member of the Equidae or horse family. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African Wild Ass, E. africanus. Traditionally, the scientific name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. However, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature has ruled in 2003 that if the domestic species and the wild species are considered subspecies of each other, the scientific name of the wild species has priority, even when that subspecies has been described after the domestic subspecies. This means that the proper scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies and Equus asinus when it is considered a species.
In the western United States, a small donkey is sometimes called a burro (from the Spanish word for the animal).

A male donkey or ass is called a jack, a female a jenny, and offspring less than one year old, a foal (male: colt, female filly). While different species of the Equidae family can interbreed, offspring are almost always sterile. Nonetheless, horse/donkey hybrids are popular for their durability and vigor. A mule is the offspring of a jack (male donkey) and a mare (female horse). The much rarer successful mating of a ma
le horse and a female donkey produces a hinny. Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BC, approximately the same time as the horse, and have spread around the world. They continue to fill important roles in many places today and domesticated species are increasing in numbers, but the African wild ass and another relative, the Onager, are endangered. As "beasts of burden" and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia.

With domestication of almost all donkeys, few species now exist in the wild. Some of them are the African Wild Ass (Equus africanus) and its subspecies Somalian Wild Ass (Equus africanus somaliensis). The Asiatic wild ass or Onager (Equus hemionus), and its relative the Kiang (Equus kiang), are closely related wild species.

Donkeys are tolerant of hot, arid environments, and, in general, is more likely to be found in hot, dry environments where the agriculture is subsistence and they are popular among pastoralists as well. Despite the increase in mechanisation throughout the world, donkeys are still well deserving of the name 'beasts of burden'. They have an important role to play in the transport of people and goods in rural, arid and semi-arid areas and where roads are poor or non-existent.

A notable increase in the use of donkeys for tillage is evident in East Africa as the number of draft cattle on small farms have declined. This has resulted in changing perceptions of the value of the donkey in many rural communities that rely on animal power for crop production. Other than for labour, donkeys are the only alternative to oxen on many smallholder farms in East Africa. They are the cheapest form of farm power other than human labour, and therefore within reach of the "poorest of the poor"; they are available to women in cultures where men usually manage the draft animals and are therefore able to alleviate the drudgery of women's household activities, such as water and firewood carrying.

These two situations have resulted in an extraordinary increase in interest in the donkey since 1990 by both farmers and aid agencies as well as a realisation that little is understood of donkeys' requirements, potential for improvement and contribution to rural livelihoods. The challenge facing farmers is to make the best use of the resources that they have available, while the challenge to livestock researchers and extension officers is to provide information that will help farmers do this. Donkeys have developed very loud vocalizations, which help them to keep in contact with other donkeys over the wide spaces of the desert. The best-known call is referred to a "bray," which can be heard for over three kilometers.

Some examples of domestic donkey breeds includes the:

While different species of the Equidae family can interbreed, offspring are almost always sterile. Nonetheless, horse/donkey hybrids are popular for their durability and vigor. A mule is the offspring of a jack (male donkey) and a mare (female horse). The much rarer successful mating of a male horse and a female donkey produces a hinny. Mules were common in East Africa until the 70's since when they are hardly ever seen. They were used widely as pack animals during the war and on safari. The mule is, generally, a much bigger animal than the East Africa donkey. They are usually a dark brown and their ears are much longer than a donkey's. Their size makes them stronger than a donkey, but they are not as obliging as a donkey

Jennies are pregnant for approximately 11 months, and usually give birth to one foal. Twins are very rare and, where this occurs, one of the twins would more than likely be very small and would not survive. Horse-donkey hybrids are almost always sterile because horses have 64 chromosomes whereas donkeys have 62, producing offspring with 63 chromosomes.

The offspring of a zebra-donkey cross is called a, zebroid. Occasionally zebroids are seen in areas of East Africa where donkeys and zebras graze in close proximity. They are easily identified by stripes on their legs, quarters and, sometimes, their sides. This cross is often found to be very difficult to train as zebra are known for their unfriendly nature and it seems that this trait is passed on to the young.

The offspring of a zebra-donkey cross is called a, zebroid. Occasionally zebroids are seen in areas of East Africa where donkeys and zebras graze in close proximity. They are easily identified by stripes on their legs, quarters and, sometimes, their sides. This cross is often found to be very difficult to train as zebra are known for their unfriendly nature and it seems that this trait is passed on to the young.

5) Donkeys can also make wonderful guard animals - the right donkey gelding (male) or jennet will take care of an entire herd of cattle, sheep or goats - the natural aversion to predators will inspire the donkey to severely discourage any canine attacks on the herd.

All animals are sensitive to how we treat them, including donkeys. If we treat them better, they will be healthier, live longer and we will be able to get more out of them. With humane, considerate care and treatment, a donkey becomes the most co-operative and productive work animal. Below are some practices you should consider in your relationship with your donkey.

Donkeys should always be treated gently. If you are harsh to your donkey, she will not be friendly to you. When a donkey is working, and during the dry season she needs balanced, diet and mineral salts. If using your donkey to carry on her back, ensure that the load is balanced, the backbone is protected and there is enough padding to prevent sores from developing. For pulling carts use comfortable breast straps or collar harnessing with breaching. Always ensure that the draw pole does not rub against the donkey's body, causing injuries and sores.

If your donkey is not eating well and looks dull or sick, seek veterinary advice. De-worm your donkey twice a year. De-worming is most effective at the end of dry season, or before seasonal rains. The most common disease in donkeys include: tetanus, tick, fever. African horse sickness, pneumonia and rabies. All these illnesses need veterinary attention

Good harnessing and training are important in order to easily handle and work better with your donkey. Training should precede working sessions and donkeys usually learn very fats. Keep harnesses and equipment around where your donkey rests so that she becomes familiar with them.

Treat your donkey as you would your car - you would not allow anyone to abuse your car continually - you would soon find another driver!

Donkeys have larger ears than horses. Their longer ears may pick up more distant sounds and may help cool the donkey's blood. It is, therefore, important that donkey owners do not cut off the ears as a brand mark.

You can help your donkey live a long time healthier life by making some changes on its feeding. Donkeys generally take good care of themselves but perform even better when we take good care of them.

Donkeys that are well fed are generally healthier, more productive and cost less to maintain. Try some of the following suggestion on feeding your donkey and see the different it makes on how hard your donkey works for you.

Just like beings, donkeys should be fed on a balanced diet. A balanced diet consists of energy foods, fats, vitamins and minerals.

Energy food gives donkey the strength to live, walk and work. The more energy foods your donkey eats the harder it can work and the stronger it will be. Donkeys get energy mainly from feeding on grass and straw.

Protein in foods gives your donkey what it needs to grow, stay healthy and recover from injuries and illness young donkeys need a lot of protein to grow tall and strong. Mother donkey's milk is an important supply of protein for the baby donkey. Donkeys get protein from dark green foods like alfalfa, bean straw and some types of trees like acacia. You can supplement protein with cattle or sheep's food.

However, any of these supplements should NOT contain UREA. Donkeys also need some protein to get more energy from their food.

Fats in food help to keep your donkey healthy and warm. Fats act as a store of energy when food is in short supply. Most of the donkey's food does not contain much fat in them, but its body can make fat from the extra energy food and protein eaten when food is in plenty. Fatter donkeys get fewer injuries from harnesses than thin donkeys.

Vitamins in food keep your donkey healthy and strong. If it doesn't get vitamins it will become weak and sick. Donkeys get vitamins from fresh green foods like vegetables or grass. Dry, old grass fed contain few vitamins

Minerals and salts in food give your donkey strong bones, teeth and a higher blood count. If your donkey doesn't get enough minerals its bones become weak and fragile. If a donkey doesn't get enough salt it will feel weak. On hot days it loses salt from its body through sweat and needs to eat more salt to replace the lost salts.

Water that your donkey drinks is very important to keep it healthy. Allow your donkey to drink at least once a day. On hot days make sure it drinks more.

green feed in normally higher in all vitamins, particularly vitamin A The green colour indicates the food has not been rained on excessively, it less apt to contain mould, and is easier for the donkey to eat.

Feeds from legumes, like alfalfa and clover are normally higher in proteins, vitamins and minerals (especially calcium) that feeds from grass

Feeds which contain higher leaf to stem ratio makes a feed more nutritious and easier to eat. Such feed has greater nutritional value.

Feed that has been in the shamba for long declines in proteins and minerals, and increases in fibre. The older the feed the harder it will be for the donkey to digest.

Forage stored food that "smokes" when shaken is mouldy. Abortion, colic, and even death have been attributed to mouldy hay. Avoid feeding your donkey with food that has turned mouldy.

The amount of fresh food a donkey needs depends on food quality, food freshness and the nature of the donkey's work. The following table shows the recommended feed for donkeys with different needs.

A nursing jenny needs to eat the equivalent of about 2 - 3% of her body weight a day if she is only fed forage.

A working donkey needs to eat a volume of about 3 - 4% of its body weight a day. Thus an average donkey will need about 4 to 6 kg of fodder a day and more if nursing or working. If a donkey cannot obtain this amount from available grazing, it will need supplements. In any case, if donkeys are fed concentrate each working day, they will require less grazing, and learn that work brings rewards. If a donkey is fed well, but is still thin, it probably has internal parasites which need treating.

Donkeys' tough digestive system is somewhat less prone to colic than that of horses, and is able to break down near-inedible vegetation, extracting moisture from food very efficiently. As a rule, donkeys need smaller amounts of feed than horses of comparable height and weight.

WARNING: DO NOT feed donkeys with cattle or goat/sheep's feed that contains urea (biuret) or monensin. Check the label and if in doubt don't feed otherwise you'll kill it!

Some donkey users in Southern Africa, recognising the value of their animals, have been feeding supplements throughout the dry season.

The importance of water cannot be stressed enough. When deprived of water for extended periods a donkey will suffer muscle fatigue and, in severe cases, death will result. The heart is a muscle and will fail if the donkey is continually deprived of water

Provided natural pasture is abundant and donkeys have adequate time to graze, the feeding of donkeys should not be a major problem. Besides forage (or roughage) from grazing, the animals may be fed additional forage and concentrates provided by the farmer, depending on age and workload. In general, feeding strategies should be aimed at maintaining adequate body condition during periods of work stress or reproductive stress. Some preserved forage or concentrates should be stored for such periods. This is particularly important if donkeys have to work at the end of the dry season, when natural pasture is scarce.

The most common forage supplements are crop residues. These include groundnut hay, and maize and sorghum stover. The leaves of legume fodder trees (e.g., Leucaena, Sesbania and some Acacias) are rich in protein and can also be fed to donkeys

Supplements are most important in the following conditions:

If donkeys are staked, it is important to move their stake daily, or even twice per day. Never tie a donkey by its leg as this may cause blood restriction which could result in the foot falling off. If they are fenced, it is better to have several small paddocks rather than one large one. This allows donkeys to be moved often (rotational grazing). In this way donkeys gain more nutrients than if they continually and selectively graze one large pasture. A grazing donkey can ingest eggs of internal parasites contained in manure, causing internal infections with these parasites, particularly worms. Therefore donkeys should not be allowed to graze in areas with lots of manure. Never resort to placing a wire ring in the nose of a donkey. The septum is not the same as that of a cow and the wire will nearly always cause serious damage to the donkeys nose. This can result in infection of the nasal/sinus passages.

Donkeys are more stoic, therefore detecting ailment/disease becomes more difficult compared to horse as dullness and depression maybe the only apparent sign. Therefore a donkey maybe in an advanced stage before a clinician is called to attend to such.

Daily health checking of the donkeys' condition include:

This is an important aspect in management of donkey diseases/ condition; wrong handling of donkeys while undertaking any examination may lead to the animal being un-friendly and therefore difficult to restrain. In normal situations when appropriate handling procedure are practiced the animal should be calm and be examined without much ado. However in highly strung animals, mistreated donkeys or one experiencing pain; restraining may be a challenge hence the need of chemical restraint.

The following basic rules should be observed when handling the donkey.

Unless the donkey knows you; it will be important for it to be handle by someone it knows and trust, otherwise it will be cautious about allowing you to move closer.

It is important to approach a donkey from the sideway and never directly from the back where a donkey cannot see you clearly (though a donkey can see surprisingly far around the back.) Or directly from the front (donkey feels threatened) as these are the two blind spots for a donkey- the eyes are placed on the side therefore it cannot clearly see directly in front or back. So if one approaches the animal from these blind spots it is bound to be suspicious and kick.

However, at times if it is approached from the side the animal may turn to present its hind limbs a posture favorable for kicking, but the donkey should be encouraged to do the approaching instead, as described below.

Donkeys are flight (wild) animals and thus should not jump to grab them forcefully. When a donkey's ears are pointing backwards and its tail is switching strongly from side to side-this means it's frightened and preparing to kick. In such a situation it's better to check what is frightening it and remove the threat. If the donkey obviously considers the approaching person to be the threat, then that person must stand still, make soothing noises, use the donkey's name and hold some tidbit to encourage the donkey to make the approach to the person rather than the person approaching the donkey.

It's also advised to approach and work with donkeys, and stand before mounting on them (equines) always from the "near" or left side. The right side is called the "off" side.

If the donkey's head is restrained, it can be led or held for any procedure/s such as examination or administering medication. A halter can be made from a piece of sisal rope; but one should avoid using nylon rope against the skin. A simple slip halter can be made with loops. Ensure that the halter doesn't become too tight across the head and doesn't apply too much pressure on the nose as this will block the animal from breathing hence cause discomfort and the animal will start being wild.

Head collars are suitable for donkeys'; they should have buckles to adjust the size of the straps around the nose. This way the head collar can be made big enough to go around a donkey's nose.

For most donkeys this is sufficient, however when more restraint is required hold by the chin and the base of the ear. Put the flat of your hand under the animal's chin, the put your thumb across its mouth and grip (do not grab) with your fingers.

Covering a donkey's eyes with your hand, a towel or a similar cloth will often make it stand quietly. This is more useful in the field.

This helps to prevent kicking from a hind leg(s). Pick up the front leg on the same side as the back leg on which you are working. Two people may be required for this technique; one person keeps the head still while the other holds up the front leg. However this method is not suitable for very nervous donkeys/horses. In such situations then light sedation is necessary.

Only veterinarians should attempt to sedate donkeys, so directions are not listed here, but for some types of examination sedation is necessary. Please consult you veterinarian.

Clinical examination is the primary action that a clinician undertakes whenever s/he is examining an animal.

For easier and wholistic clinical examination, the animal is divided into region/blocks i.e.

Rectal Temperature, Range 36.5- 37.8 (average 37.1)

This can be detected at several points of the donkey's body

The normal heart rate for an adult donkey is 44 beats/min.

Donkeys tend to be quite healthy. When an animal falls ill, give it a rest in a quiet place with food and water. Consult, if possible, the local animal health agent or veterinarian. A farmer should be able to tell in an early stage whether the donkey is sick. Signs of ill health are when a donkey:

The earlier a disease is recognised, the sooner treatment can start. The cost of medicine or loss of work power can thus be minimised.

The wound should be cleaned with clean salty water. While a wound is healing the cause of the wound should be removed and the animal rested; if available a mild disinfectant can be used (dilute iodine 1-2%)

NB. Oxygen is a vital part of the wound repair process; anaerobic conditions may arise if the wound contains both a disrupted blood supply and an enclosed surfaced; puncture wounds are notorious for the development of these conditions and this provides an ideal circumstances for some of the most notorious Clostridial infections eg C. tetani is classic wound contaminant; to which Penicillin is highly effective. A fully vaccinated donkey may contract tetanus when the wounds are highly contaminated with the causative agent.

Wounds with impaired oxygen delivery require careful management to eliminate anaerobic conditions and encourage a good oxygen supply. NB: In case of deep wounds it is important to administer Tetanus toxin currently available:

i. Managing Infected wound

It is paramount to remove all the dead tissues and any foreign bodies in the wound using a scapel blade which may delay the healing of the wound. Ideally after 6-8 hours a wound is considered to be contaminated therefore the need of using prophylactic antibiotic. Any suspected infection should be flushed using diluted hydrogen peroxide should not be used in any healing wound - ensure there is proper drainage for the hydrogen peroxide; this is followed by lavaging and later application of diluted (1-2%) Povidone iodine.

This is where the lower or the end part of the gut may turn out/ come out of the body. This is commonly seen in working donkeys that are suffering from heavy helminthiasis (internal worm parasitism) - Gasterophilus larvae (Bot fly); diarrhea and malnutrition. While feeding of dry feed (bran, maize or rice straws) without adequately providing the donkey with water. Overloading/overworking may also predispose the donkey to the condition.
Other causes include parturition and colic.

a) Manifestation

The owner complains of a mass of reddish (meat) hanging from the rectum. The rectum is oedematous/swollen, reddish or cyanotic (survival rate is low). Ruptured (cracks) due to excessive edema. Necrosis may have set in.

Identification of the initial cause is paramount for effective management Physical Restraint of the animal may be enhanced chemically (Xylazine or ACP) Gently cleaning of the rectum and the perineum (vulva in female) with mild disinfectant (diluted Savlon or soapy water) ensuring no or minimal damage to the organ and the surrounding tissue. Remove any necrotic tissue.

NB: Apply hygroscopic compounds (sugar) - salt is very irritating and should be avoided where possible to reduce the edema fully (patience is of essence). These should be washed off as they are act as good media for microbial growth.
Lubricate with liquid paraffin or any other water soluble gel. Gently and carefully return/replace the rectum to its normal anatomical position. Patience is required. Do not push against peristalsis.
If necessary, retention with purse string suture is recommended but normal passage of faeces to be ensured (Local anesthesia required). The Suture should not be left in place for more than 12 hours. Antibiotics and anti-inflammatory should be given when there is need. Treat the underlying cause.
The owner should be advised provide water ad lib and to monitor defaecation

Donkeys' feet generally require trimming every 6-10 months dependent on the terrain; owners should be encouraged to check/examine all the four feet on a daily basis to remove debris, stones and other foreign bodies.

Lameness is caused by pain in some part of the leg. Lameness may be in more than one leg. The foot of the lame leg is held pointing to the ground especially in front leg lameness. There is a difference in amount of muscle in the shoulder of lame leg and normal leg.

Is an acute lameness presenting as non-weight bearing lameness; abscesses frequently track proximally from the white line at the bearing surface to eventually rupturing at the coronary band. It is important to first trim the foot back to a normal length and conformation, exposing a clean bearing surface free of all but deeper lesions; the entire weight bearing surface should then be explored, paying attention to the white line area. Black marks, especially those adjacent to the sole axially are suspicious.

NB: Digital pressure at the coronary band may illicit a response from related distal abscess. One may resect the overlying hoof wall to facilitate drainage; however avoid injury and Prolapse of the underlying sensitive corium.

A common problem usually not recognized by the owner which may cause damage to the hoof. Causes are varied and include

The hoof of animal continuously grows throughout its life but wears down as it grows. At times the hoof may overgrow when the animal is rested or injured which will call for trimming; there are instances when the hooves are overgrown/ deformed which will call for trimming them in two sessions with two weeks gap. This ensures the hoof is trimmed to back to its functional state (normal shape and angle).

Abscesses, hernia, haematoma, tumour, oedema' etc.

This is pus accumulation under the skin.
Management of Abscess
Treatment is by lancing, cleaning/flushing using diluted hydrogen peroxide and apply diluted iodine- ensure the created wound will be able to drain.

This is accumulation of blood under the skin due to injury leading to bleeding under the skin. The swelling is soft at first but doesn't pit under pressure. It is less painful than an abscess. An uninfected haematoma should be left alone; as it heals with the blood clots and the serum being absorbed. Infected haematoma is treated in the same way as an abscess.

Sarcoid is a viral skin tumour/cancer that resembles a large hairless warts; it is commonly found on the hairless areas, around genitals, eyes and nostrils. If untreated they enlarge and ulcerated with continuous discharges; they are prone to fly strike. Management is through surgical excision - ensuring the whole mass is removed.

Skin disease includes changes of the skin due to bacterial, viral and parasitic as well as fungal infections.
Common skin diseases include:

This is caused by Trichophyton and Microsporum spp. which tends to grow in circular hairless rings, nodules and abscesses on skin. It is spread by close contact with infected animals/equipments.

Fungus: Histoplasma fasciminosum: causes lumps and abscesses on skin and mucus membranes, in eyes causes discharges which attracts flies leading to irritation and rubbing of the affected areas.

Prevention and Control
This can be done by use of anti-fungal drugs and/or surgical removal of nodules or use of Zinc oxide ointment on skin.

Are large bloods sucking insects that attach to the soft skin under the tail, inside the fore and hind legs and in ears. They transmit blood parasites that cause blood loss and diseases such as Babesiosis.

Lice are found usually in the mane and the tail in poorly fed and young animals. They cause itchiness causing the animal to rub and lick itself. Signs will include patchy losses of hair, excessive rubbing, scratching and biting at skin, restlessness, scabs, exudates formation, head shaking.

These are parasitic mites that burrow into the skin and cause intense irritation resulting in biting and rubbing by the animal. Mites are characterized by severe irritation, thickened skin with gray scabs and surface flakes

Mites can be transmitted from one donkey to another by contact or grooming equipment, so avoid contact of animals and using the same grooming material. Mange is treated with Ivermectin (three time each 10 days apart (day o, day 10, day 21).

Use of organophosphates such as Stelladone®, Synthetic pyrethroids such as Delete®, Decatix®

NOTE: Amitraz such as Triatix®, Norotraz®, are contraindicated in equines. However there are some farmers who have used amitraz with no side effects reported; this can be achieved if the animal is given adequate water before applying the acaricide. At all times ensure the unit is cleaned and beddings replaced while you control the parasite on the animal.

These include:

These are variations with different kinds of worms

Removal of faeces from pasture every 2-3 months to reduce contamination of grazing resulted in a decrease in worm egg counts, and less clinical disease in horses compared to those treated regularly with anthelmintics (Herd, 1986, Krecek, unpublished data). This is a simple, low cost method of reducing worm egg counts which could be an affordable, effective and therefore acceptable practice to control parasite burdens in donkeys. Keeping animals in fly-proof accommodation for at least part of the day when vector flies are prevalent, can also reduce the incidence

Strongyles are found world wide, the larvae cause colic and death. The larvae migrating in the body tissue causes:

In areas where the worm burden is high it is advisable to deworm the donkey after every three or six months intervals. In other instances strategic deworming is the best way of controlling the worms which targets the period when the infective stage of the worm is highest. Treatment: use any of the following: lvermectin orally or Fenbendazole

These worms don't cause much problem to the adult donkeys except when they block the gut hence causing colic; but poses problem in foals

Treat all foals aged eight week and above, by which time the animal would have developed immunity. The drugs of choice are Piperazine or Ivermectin.

These are less harmful to donkeys as compared to round worms. The animal doesn't show overt signs of infection/infestation but in case of large numbers they cause intestinal blockage, colic and caecal perforation.

Note: Diagnosis using the faecal floation method has low sensitivity, due to un-even egg distribution in faeces- though it is highly specific as the tapeworm eggs distinctively angular and readily identified.

Pyrantel or Praziquantel compounds.

The fluke is a leaf-shaped parasite that lives in the bile ducts of the liver. This condition is only found at PM, in a live animal they asymptomatic.

Rectal Prolapse has been associated with heavy endoparasitism. Dewormers/Anthelmintics in the Market

N.B: Administration of Oxfendazole and Fenbendazole over a number of consecutive days may prove more effective against most resistant parasites than a single administration.

Infectious diseases of equine include viral, bacterial, fungal as well as parasitic disease in broader sense. Here we will consider only certain of these infectious agents.

This disease looks like flu initially with coughing which disappears later. Clinical signs

Early case - High temperature, watery discharge from the nose, coughing
Later cases - Cough disappears, difficulty of swallowing, thick, creamy, white pus (nasal discharge)

Treatment - Resting the animal, nursing (offering soft, moist food), and antibiotic (preferably Penicillin based) treatment.

Caused by Clostridium tetani; it is associated with soil contamination of sores and wounds from ill-fitting harnesses and poor hygiene during surgery.

Treatment - Use of tetanus toxoid, heavy dose of Penicillin and sedatives, keep the animal in a calm place. Open the suspected wound and flush it with hydrogen peroxide.

Can be prevented by complete treatment of wounds and cleanliness/ hygiene in surgical procedures.

Anthrax in equines has a chronic form and these animals do not die of the disease in most cases.

Treatment: - Anthrax easily treated by antibiotics in earlier stages

The disease affects the skin and lungs. Horses are resistant to glanders but mules and donkeys die within two weeks

Treatment: sulphadiazine.

The disease is a viral disease which comes from a bite of an infected animal or contact of wound with saliva of an infected animal.

Divided into the furious (encephalitis) and dumb (paralytic) forms; the disease usually is a combination of both- signs will include

NB: Any rapidly progressing neurological condition should be a case of suspected rabies, especially if accompanied by obvious bite or wounds or history of exposure to rabid animals. Confirmatory Diagnosis: the complete head of the donkey to be submitted to the laboratory for diagnosis Kabete Veterinary Laboratory or any of the Regional Veterinary Investigation Laboratories (VIL).

This disease affects equines especially when they are crowded. The infection gets into the body through damage to skin and can be carried by biting flies.

Diseases that affect respiratory system

The most common complaint in donkeys is pneumonia. This is generally brought abut by poor management practices and working undernourished donkeys too hard for too long. The result is exhaustion and the donkey is not able to deal with the challenge presented by exhaustion, dehydration and cold (at night). This will, inevitably, result in pneumonia

Other causes include:

Treatment - Penicillin or Trimethoprim-sulphonamides for at least 7 days, NSAIDs, Rest in a clean, dust-free areas,

A part from the common species of Trypanosoma causing Trypanosomosis in equines; donkeys are also affected by tsetse transmitted Trypanosomosis (T. vivax, T. congolense and T. brucei) commonly referred to as Nagana in cattle. Therefore in tsetse fly endemic areas, donkeys are also at a higher risk and may not the necessary attention as the other domestic livestock. It's usually an acute or chronic disease depending on the species of tsetse fly; these signs are dependent on the nutrition status of the animal, pregnancy status, level of work, level of stress, general health status and any concurrent disease.

Intermittent fever (comes and goes), weakness and progressive thinness (loss of body weight) tired easily and may stop eating, anaemia/ pale mucus membranes (gums, conjunctiva), swollen lymph nodes, limbs and belly with edema, sensitivity to light, dullness, dragging hind limbs, loss of balance, seizures, head pressing, cycling and paralysis are signs of brain infection.

Use thin and thick blood smear (blood sample take when there is fever and from peripheral venous supply preferably the ears vein.

The drugs used must be used with a lot of caution and be injected deep intramuscularly due to tissue necrosis and toxicity.
The Preparation in the market include:

NOTE: Trypanocidals do not cross the blood-brain barrier hence once nervous signs have commenced it is inadvisable to treat such an animal but it is imperative for it to be euthanized. Prevention/control
Control the fly on the animal and treat diagnosed cases on time.

Babesiosis is caused by intra-erythrocytic protozoan parasites; Babesia. This is a tick transmitted disease, whose vectors include Hyalomma, Dermacentor and Rhipicephalus ticks; intrauterine infection, particularly with B. equi, is also relatively common.

The incubation period ranges from 5 - 21 days. The signs include fever (frequently 105.8°F [41°C] or higher), inappetence, increased respiratory rate, muscle tremors, anemia, jaundice, depression, marked thirst, lacrimation, swelling of the eyelids, weight loss; hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria occur in the final stages.

Affected donkeys are constipated, passing small, hard ball of faeces covered with yellow mucus, may loose the health condition. Sometimes donkeys can show colic symptoms viz. looking at flank, pawing, kicking at belly region, lying down and rolling, due to sluggish intestinal peristaltic movements and constipation.

NB: The most characteristic sign is the development of icterus, mucus membranes vary from pale pink to pale yellow to bright yellow in color. Petechiae or ecchymosed haemorrhages are seen on the mucus membranes of nasal passages, vagina or third eyelids. Extremely large spleen in the affected animals is the common symptom.

Untreated or neglected cases become severely anemic, malaise, reluctant to move, down neck, inappetence, disinterest in surroundings and show signs of general weakness. Development of progressive anemia and haemoglobinuria in the last clinical phase of the disease is pathognomonic sign in B. equi infection in horses and also in donkeys. Equines usually have higher threshold for escape of haemoglobin through urine from the circulation, hence haemoglobinuria is observed as last irreversible clinical sign signifying nephrosis and subsequent renal failure.

Chronic cases are more common in donkeys and clinical signs are usually non specific including mild inappetence, poor work performance or poor body weight gain. Mixed infections are not uncommon therefore making diagnosis difficult. Clinically, babesiosis can be confused with other conditions that cause fever, anemia, hemolysis, jaundice, or red urine. Therefore, confirmation of a diagnosis by microscopic examination of Giemsa-stained blood or organ smears is essential. From the live animal, thick and thin blood smears should be prepared, preferably from capillaries in the ear or tail tip.

Hemoglobin concentration, PCV level, red blood cell counts reduces significantly in donkeys infected acutely with B. equi parasite. Acute infection is also characterized by severe leucocytosis, lymphopenia, high absolute neutrophils count. Post mortem signs from B.equi include: varying degree of emaciation, gross enlargement of the liver and spleen and flabby kidneys. Small pin point petechiae haemorrhages are also present on liver, spleen and cortical surface of the kidney. Lungs are edematous, congested and enlarged lymph nodes.

If equine babesiosis is diagnosed and treated early, there is an excellent chance of recovery. . Imidocarb (Imizol®is a babesiacidal drug that is administered at a dosage of 2.2mg /kg. Two treatments are administered at a 24-hour interval. For cases of Babesia equi that are resistant to therapy, a dose of 4mg /kg is administered 4 times at 72-hour intervals. This regimen is often effective in treating the infection.

This by control of tick infestations and avoiding iatrogenic transfer of infected blood during routine surgical and medical procedures.

Colic: means abdominal pain (the stomach or intestine), affecting all equine species; however donkeys show fewer behavioural signs to pain

This is caused by many different conditions affecting the internal organs. Most cases of colic are associated with poor management practices. The common causes include:

Poor Teeth - Will lead to large junk of food passing through hence causing blockage Sand - the animal may swallow sand if it is grazing on the sandy ground where grass is scanty. The swallowed sand can cause inflammation and impaction in the gut. Eating strange things - Equines sometimes eat plastic bags, pieces of ropes and all sorts of rubbish. These accumulates along gut and cause colic

Aimed to relieve pain, correct dehydration and restore the normal passage of ingesta.

Zoonosis: is any infectious disease that can be transmitted to humans by vertebrate animals e.g. rabies, anthrax, glanders

Transmission - Equines are infected via a bite from a rabied animal (dog,donkey or other animals)

Transmission - Animals can get the disease when they eat a bit of contaminated soil with grass.

Treatment - Give injections of antibiotics such as penicillin

Storage: great care should be taken in case of storage Live vaccine should be stored in the refrigerator at -20 degree centigrade; while the killed vaccine can be stored at +4 degree centigrade for two years & at room temp. 20 - 21degree centigrade for 6 months

Some equine diseases that need vaccination & the doses of vaccine to be given

Due to a combination of factors such as limited angle of opening the mouth, rostral positioning of the lip corners and the length of the dental arcade it is difficult to fully examine the caudal teeth; hence the need to use a gag (speculum) for this purpose. Conditions affecting the teeth include overgrown teeth which may affect the ability of the donkey to masticate hence the need to even such teeth

Animals with no clinical signs may still have sharp or damaged teeth that may cause problem later

Clinical signs of tooth problem include

Different communities hold different myths and false beliefs about donkeys. Some of them are simply unrealistic. These myths and beliefs should not discourage you from taking good care of your donkey. You will only reap full benefits if your donkey is in good condition.
Below are some examples of false beliefs and myths: