Teaching requires not only knowledge of the subject, but also knowledge of how best the learners will learn. It is important to remember that a six year old does not think or learn in the same way as a sixteen year old. They are at different levels of physical development. They are also at different levels of cognitive and emotional development. Many classes will include children of different ages, even though they may all be in the same grade. The teacher must be aware of the differences between children in their class, and utilize different teaching approaches and class management techniques in helping them to learn well.

4.1 How children learn This section summarizes some characteristics of adolescents from 11 to 18 years of age.

During this stage learners tend to question and criticize more than younger children. They may not accept authority very easily and will be more influenced by children of their own age, such as their friends and peer group. They are more likely to be disruptive in class than younger children. At the same time, they may be able to learn much more quickly and in more abstract ways than the younger children.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS: Some ways to organize lessons for teenagers

• Teenagers have different interests from young children. Find out what these interests are and utilize them in your teaching. For example, teenagers will be more interested in what they will do as adults, either in their careers or in their social relationships. They are often more interested in expressing their personalities through their habits or language. Utilize these interests in your lessons.
• Teenagers would like to be more independent, to do things for themselves, to learn on their own, and to be more responsible for themselves and their learning. Use their wish to be more independent to enable them to learn better. For example, let them find out information for themselves through interviews, reading, and research on their own. Let them do more project work. Let them apply their knowledge and skills to the reality around them, such as by drawing maps of their home, school, and surroundings.

4.2 Classroom discipline and management In the discussion in section 4.1 about how children learn, suggestions were made for how teachers should model learning behavior and how best young and adolescent children learn knowledge and skills. In this section, we take a more psychological perspective in discussing child development and how that development affects behavior. We will look at why discipline and management are so important to children's well-being, and will provide concrete suggestions for positive ways to discipline and manage children.

Discipline is what you say and do to teach an individual child acceptable behavior and guide him or her to practice that behavior. Discipline is not simply punishment. Management includes techniques that teachers use to guide the behavior of a group of children. Discipline and management will help you meet three important goals:

• Keeping children physically safe. Older children can get carried away when playing and endanger other students and themselves.
• Promoting children's sense of self. As they define themselves as separate people, children test limits. You are there to help set limits when necessary and allow children to feel safe. Knowing that you are there to insist on some limitations will lessen children's fears of losing control and encourage them to explore their independence.
• Teaching children to develop self-control. This process takes a long time, and through it the child learns beliefs, values, and a sense of right and wrong. Over time, children will no longer need to be reminded to behave "correctly," because they will act on their own belief as to what is the right thing to do. Self-control is important for two reasons in particular: (1) people with self-control feel good, confident and proud of themselves; and (2) people with self-control are more responsible members of a group - at the same time as they voice their own opinions and beliefs, they respect those of others.

Remember that every child is an individual and that the children in your class will be at different levels of development, even if they are the same age. Here are guidelines and suggestions for teachers to meet the goals above:

• Match your expectations of behavior to children's developmental level. Young school-age children, for example, are fairly capable of self-control. They understand why there are rules and they can begin to generate their own rules. As they develop mentally, they will show aggression more verbally than physically. They will call each other names, and they need your help to learn that this behavior is hurtful and unacceptable.
• Show children respect even though you may not approve of their behavior. Be careful not to attack children's self-esteem. You should focus your disapproval on the behavior, not on the child.
• Provide a routine. Children respond very well to routine activities, such as singing a morning song to start the day and to signal lunchtime. Also, remember to explain to children what is going to happen next, for children find it unsettling to be in transition or without limits. For example, you might say, "After this activity, we will play a game."
• Offer alternatives. Be flexible with your lesson plans, for behavioral problems often arise when children are bored or find tasks too difficult. If the children are having difficulty with an exercise, be ready to alter it or offer a different exercise, rather than forcing the children to continue. Help children understand others feelings. Recognizing how their behavior makes others feel will help children begin to learn to control their own behavior.
• Involve the entire class in problem solving. If there is a problem affecting the whole class, ask students to brainstorm ways to solve it. Brainstorming means letting everyone suggest solutions without discounting any, and the teacher should keep track of the suggestions. When they run out of suggestions, go through the list and eliminate suggestions by giving good reasons why they will not work. If the children do not come up with any reasonable solutions, you can offer solutions as well. This encourages teamwork and creativity in problem-solving.
• Acknowledge children's positive behavior. A smile or comment of encouragement will go a long way toward promoting desirable behavior. For example, "I like the way you two cooperated to decide who was going to draw first."
• Encourage children to talk about their feelings and frustrations. Listen to what children's words and actions tell you about their feelings. They may need your help in finding words to name their feelings. Help them to explain to other children that they are feeling angry, sad, frustrated, excited, etc.
• Keep your sense of humor. A joke, a silly song, or a funny face can give everyone a much-needed sense of perspective when things get tense.
• Be aware that who you are can influence your expectations and responses to children's behavior. Your own childhood experiences, your personality, and your beliefs and values influence how you treat children. It is especially important for young children that the norms you set for the learning space are appropriate and not just a repetition of how you were raised.
• Communicate your philosophy about discipline and management to parents. It is extremely important that children do not receive strongly conflicting messages from the various caregivers in their lives. The teacher must work with the parents to develop mutually acceptable management techniques, while recognizing that the management needs in the learning space tend to be unique as they must always encourage learning. You may want to hold regular meetings with parents to discuss behavior and discipline, and you may encourage parents to adopt your behaviors, such as treating children with respect even when you disapprove of their behavior.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS Complaint Box

From: Http://www.teachnet.com/manage.html

Guidelines for handling class disturbances There are a number of general guidelines which many teachers have found to be effective (Hoover, 1987). However, there is no fixed procedure in class disturbance.

• Disturbing conversation. Sometimes such a disturbance can be ignored. If it threatens to spread, the teacher can move to the area of disturbance. He/she may offer to help students get started on an assignment. If the teacher is talking to the entire group, a pause or a question to one of the disturbing students can effectively solve the problem. Although some teachers are quick to separate students who disturb, this is often an inadvisable procedure. The practice may create resentment and serve to spread the problem to other parts of the room.
• Over-dependence of one child on another. This is a problem which usually will work itself out. The students sometimes need each other until wider social acceptance is possible. Wider social acceptance is encouraged through emphasis on group work.
• Hostility between individuals and/or groups. Talk with each of the participants individually. Try to find the cause prior to any drastic attempts at reformation.
• Cheating. Cheating may occur as a result of overemphasis on grades or the establishment of unrealistic standards. For example, if the task is too hard for the students, s/he will be forced to meet the requirement.