Hybrid layers are mostly kept near potential markets for eggs (such as cities and towns) where space is limited but ready made commercial feed are easily available. Layers may be kept in individual battery cages, but more often in Kenya they are reared in deep litter houses where there is free movement and perches are provided.

Broilers are heavy breeds and usually reared on deep litter floor systems. Slatted floors dispose broilers to breast blister and leg problems just as cages, leading to lower quality.
The young chicks are bought from commercial hatcheries as day old chicks, and reared in the facilities set aside.

Broilers kept for meat production, are also hybrid birds and the chicks need to be bought commercially, as farmers do not have access to the parent breeding stock. The same commercial hatcheries listed under 'Layers' usually also have broiler chicks for sale.

Broiler hybrids are very fast growing birds and need specially manufactured feeds. It will not work to try and rear broilers on any other feed than the specially made one from reputable companies.

Broilers can be kept in similar confinements as layers, but do not need the laying boxes. Because they grow heavy enough for slaughter in 6-8 weeks, their bones are sometimes weak. To keep them healthy and bones as strong as possible, it is good to provide exercise areas, even outside.

The general requirements for organic chicken raising according welfare standards include:

The welfare of an poultry includes its physical and mental state. Good poultry welfare implies both fitness and a sense of well-being for the animal. Any poultry kept by man, must at least be protected from unnecessary suffering.

An animal's welfare, whether on farm, in transit, at market or at a place of slaughter should be considered in terms of 'five freedoms'. These freedoms define ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare. They form a logical and comprehensive framework for analysis of welfare within any system together with the steps and compromises necessary to safeguard and improve welfare within the proper constraints of an effective livestock industry.

1) Freedom from Hunger and Thirst - by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigor.

2) Freedom from Discomfort - by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area.

3) Freedom from Pain, Injury or Disease - by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.

4) Freedom to Express Normal Behaviour - by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind.

5) Freedom from Fear and Distress - by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering.

For more information on Animal Welfare and Organic Certification Norms in Chicken see here

Before starting up a poultry enterprise, it is important to know the market requirements for the targeted market, the investment costs, running costs, and expected revenue for the different products. In Kenya markets for poultry products maybe categorized as follows

Market trends in Kenya presently (Sept 2009) see consumers shifting interest from the previously dominant hybrid layer eggs and broiler meat towards what is conceived as a healthier diet of free range or indigenous eggs/chicken. Also organic eggs and chicken find very good and well paying market especially in the major urban centres in Kenya.

Major production systems The major production systems as per national pie chart are as follows: 1. Indigenous chicken (76% of Kenya chicken) 2. Broilers 6-8 weeks to maturity (13.2% 3. Hybrid layers 1-2 years production systems (8.6%) 4. Specialized production (hybrid cockerels, chicken breeds, organic chicken etc) (2.2%)

Each of these systems has its own risks and return pattern, and it is advisable to fully investigate what a production system will mean to you, before starting the production. Generally and if well managed, the return to investment in a poultry enterprise is rapid as compared to other livestock enterprises.

Broilers and layers are mainly commercially reared by urban and peri urban farmers who target the ready market. Commercial production mainly utilizes specialized hybrids of broilers and layers. Availability of chicken feed is a major challenge coupled with low quality of feeds and uncontrolled prices

Indigenous chicken can be reared in small plots with very little investment, whereas the broilers and hybrid layers require fairly heavy investment

Before starting any poultry production enterprise, calculate if it is economically feasible thereby making the right decisions regarding the production system and the necessary interventions

Also value the standing stock, e.g. the production flock which is the foundation of future income. Poultry manure also represents a value when use on the farm or sold for other activities. As manure poultry waste reduces the cost of buying fertilizer and improves crop production.

Local chicken breeds are the most abundant livestock species in Kenya with an estimated population of 23 million birds. Indigenous chicken are mostly kept under a free range system in small flocks of less than 30 birds. They are more adapted to local conditions than the hybrids but have a lower productivity.

Below some normal features in indigenous chicken. As can be seen many of the above pure breeds features can be found among indigenous chicken, indicating a great amount of mixed genes. Breeding indigenous chicken for improvement of the breed is very feasible for the specialist.

Housing is necessary to protect chicken against predators, thieves, adverse weather (rain, sun, cold winds, low night temperatures) and to provide shelter for egg laying and broody hens. Suitable poultry houses are important for efficient production and management. Poultry houses and shelters vary depending on availability of materials, weather and tradition. Choice of chicken housing should be based on cost, durability and usage.

Nesting material should be changed at least once a week. Ensure that the nest is 1/3 full with litter material to make the hen feel secure. When necessary place ?dummy eggs? (e.g. stone eggs) in the nests to train/attract the hens into using the nests.

Mix ashes, tobacco leaves or other anti-parasitic substances with the nesting material. This will keep out most external parasites. External parasites reduce hatchability, since brooding hens spend too much time and energy leaving the nest, cleaning and scratching her body hence leaving the eggs cold.

Upon hatching, it is important to keep the hen and chicks close together in a shelter. Shelter should protect chicks from adult poultry; feed competition with other poultry and protect against predators. Shelters should provide a stable environment for the chicks and shelter from bad weather.

Place the shelter on a mat to protect against the cold. A shelter of basketwork with a top hole (diameter 20 cm) is useful, as feed and water may be changed without disturbing the chicks. It also gives the necessary ventilation. A woven mat on the floor may provide additional protection during cold weather. The mat should be cleaned daily to remove droppings and spilled/contaminated feed. Droppings may be recycled as farm manure

Chicken runs are a fenced open air space of 25 m² or more where poultry are kept and protected against predators and thieves. Runs are also used for feeding, watering, for daily flock observation and collection of eggs. The walls are 2 meters high and can be made of clay or woven mat or chicken wire. A chicken run is relatively costly but provides security to the poultry. Allow adult birds to scavenge outside the run during daytime to reduce feeding costs.

The main types of housing systems for hybrid layers (Egg production), differ mainly in the floor types and are the following:

Broilers can be kept in similar confinements as layers, but do not need the laying boxes. Because they grow heavy enough for slaughter in 6-8 weeks, their bones are sometimes weak. To keep them healthy and bones as strong as possible, it is good to provide exercise areas, even outside. Also broilers like some sunshine, which reduces stress in the flock and helps keep the birds healthy.

Both hybrid layers and broiler products improve if the chicken have access to outside exercise area, greens in the diet, sunshine and areas where they can take dust baths. Eggs from layers fed with enough greens have a deep yellow yolk, which is much preferred by the market and fetches premium prices compared to the light yellow to almost white yolks of eggs from battery hens. Broilers produce better quality meat (better texture and taste) if they have access to outdoor facilities such as sunshine, exercise, dust bath areas and green feed. They also have stronger bones and less tendency to break legs during processing.

Poultry are often allowed to scavenge for food in the local environment during day time, getting housed in the evenings. In some cases they roost in the branches of trees or in enclosed baskets in the house to protect from predators and theft. In other cases, keepers build wooden, stone or brick accommodation attached to the family dwelling house. As brick houses tend to be difficult to keep clean. They present a potential threat due to the build-up of pathogens.

Feeding is important so as to increase the production of meat and eggs from indigenous chicken. A lack of feed or water will reduce resistance to diseases and parasites, and subsequently increase flock mortality. It is important to note that even small flocks of indigenous chicken will starve during certain periods of the year (e.g drought, planting season when birds are confined, floods etc) when left to scavenge without supplementary feeding.

Egg production and growth are limited by access to feed and genetic potential. Local birds are the best converters of feed to eggs under fluctuating environmental conditions, although their production potential is much lower than genetically improved breeds.You may easily increase egg production and growth of local birds by giving supplementary feeds. Improved breeds also perform well under village conditions when given a steady supply of feeds. It is important to always start by making calculations of the cost-benefit and judge the risks involved before choosing the quantity and type of feed.

Feeds and feeding will vary between free range, semi-intensive and intensive systems of poultry production basically due to profitability. In the following we will focus on semi-intensive systems and discuss the importance of feed requirements, feed types, feed mixing, feeding equipment, feed storage, feeding and watering.

The composition and availability of feeds will vary, depending on the season, locality and production system. In general poultry, as other animals need feed containing energy and protein, as well as vitamins, minerals and water. The need for feed will change, depending on the age and status (chicken, grower, egg layer, broody hen) of the bird. The cheapest - and also often the best - way to supplement the diet of your poultry, is to use local resources. However, many vitamins and nutrients are destroyed if stored too long or under sub-optimal conditions, e.g. high humidity and heat. Knowledge of feed quality and sources of different feed types is important for feed safety.

If your production is based on improved breeds or hybrids for egg production, different types of commercial diets may be offered. These are divided into three distinct categories, with decreasing amount of protein as follows;

Note: The above quantities are a guide and will vary depending on feed quality and level of feed wastage.

When buying commercial feeds, calculate whether it is profitable based on the market price for eggs or meat/live birds. If the product price is lower than the price of feed consumed by the birds it is not economical to offer commercial feeds. Indigenous chicks may be offered commercial diets profitably from day old to six weeks of age.

In a free-range or semi-intensive poultry rearing system, adult hens and cocks ought to be given enough time and space for scavenging in the surroundings daily. The best time for scavenging is early morning and late afternoon when there are plenty of insects and less heat. Chicks below six weeks of age should be confined. Supplementary feeds should be offered in the morning and evening when the birds come back for the night. Ad libitum clean water should be provided in shady areas during the day to avoid heat stress.

As a rule 75% of a quality poultry diet is made up of energy feeds. Energy feeds are the most important feeds for maintenance requirements (e.g. body temperature, vital functions, exercise). Cereal grains, roots and tubers are the most important energy feeds. Examples of energy feeds are cereals like maize and its by-products (bran), sorghum, wheat and its by-products (bran), rice and its byproducts (bran, polishing), cassava root meal, yams and sweet potatoes.

Roots and tubers should be soaked in water for 60 minutes or cooked before drying to remove harmful substances and the proportion in the diet in general kept below 10%. Fat is also a good source of energy in particular in hot climates, as the heat produced during metabolism is less than from traditional energy feeds, e.g. cereals. Sources of fat are e.g.: tallow, lard, oil cake meals, hotel used oils and fat. Such oils and fats should only be given in small amounts, i.e. less than 10% of the total diet.

Protein is needed for growth and optimal health status. Normally no more than 20% of a poultry diet is made up of protein-rich feeds mainly due to high cost. Protein sources may originate from animals or plants. Examples of protein-rich local feeds are: Maggots, termite eggs, insects, worms, peas, beans, and oil cakes from e.g. ground nuts, cotton seeds, palm kernels, and coconuts. Animal byproducts such as fishmeal, meat or bone meal are not allowed. Synthetic amino acids are not permitted. Some harmful substances (anti-nutrients) are present in some protein-rich plants e.g. beans. As such their proportion in the diet should be low based on type and processing prior to feeding.

Minerals are important for bone formation, eggshell formation and for optimal health status. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To produce strong egg shells, laying hens need free access to calcium (limestone or crushed shells). Mature birds are usually able to balance their mineral intake according to their requirements. When phosphorous rich feeds are added to the diet, they should be balanced with calcium rich feeds, since high levels of one mineral will cause deficiency of the other. Examples of sources for minerals are: bone meal, limestone and burned eggshells. The use of bone meal or eggshells is a good way of balancing calcium and phosphorus levels in the diet. Eggshells should always be scorched or cooked before re-use in diets to remove contaminants.

Scavenging birds get vitamins from eating green grass, vegetables, fresh cow dung and through sunlight. Vitamins A, B2, and D3 are important because many problems arise when birds are deficeint. Sunlight and green grass or green fodder normally provide Vitamin A and D, whereas Vitamin B may come from fresh cow dung. Vitamin B may also be added by giving multivitamins. Additional vitamins are given in very small quantities and purchased from agrovet stores or feed stockists. Supplementary vitamins are usually not required when birds are left to scavenge. Confined or intensively management birds always need additional vitamins added into their feeds.

It is advisable to make a semi-balanced diet for the small chicks from 0-6 weeks of age. Locally available ingredients should be dried in the shade (the sun may destroy important vitamins) and grounded in a mortar before mixing. Locally available containers such as plastic tins or matchboxes may be used for easy quantification of the different ingredients. Grams or percentages should be transferred into local quantities for field practice. Large ready-mixed quantities should only be stored, if adequate storage capacities are assured (see under "Twelve simple rules"). In general mixed feeds should not be stored for more than a few weeks to avoid contamination from mould, bacteria or rodents. Above 8 weeks of age, poultry may be fed in a cafeteria system saving time and energy on mixing feeds. The cafeteria system is described below.

Termites or maggots may also be added during the first 8 weeks. Depending on the types of crops grown in the locality cereals, oil cakes etc maybe substituted. Alternatively a commercial chick starter ration can be used from day old to 8 weeks of age. In this way you will ensure that the chicks have the daily requirements during the most vulnerable weeks.

Maggots and termites are a cheap source of protein in semi-intensive poultry production systems. However, they are a supplement to other feeds. Maggots or termites should be offered to young chicks since they require quality protein sources for optimal growth

Maggots may be grown by a simple technique and used to supplement the diet of the young chicks. Blood, offal and cow dung are mixed in a large open pot. The pot is filled with 1/3 water. Flies will lay their eggs in the mixture and maggots hatch and feed on the mixture. Leave the pot open during daytime and closed during the night. After 5 - 10 days (depending on temperature) the maggots will be ready to pupate. Collect the maggots by gently pouring water into the pot. The maggots will float and you can then wash them and feed them directly to the birds. Remember to place the pot away from public places, as the smell at times may be offensive.

Take a pot with a short neck and a capacity of at least 10 litres. Fill it up with cow dung and straw and sprinkle a little water on content. Set the pot upside down with the opening on sandy soil. After one day and one night, the pot will be full of termites and you may empty the living contents in front of the hen house in the morning.

A major economic advantage of the free-range or semi-intensive production systems over the intensive systems is the ability of poultry to scavenge for in the surroundings. This so-called scavenging feed resource base (SFRB) will change over the seasons based on climate, geography and production system in the area on which the poultry scavenge for feeds. Depending on the season, the chicken may find nearly all they need in the surroundings (e.g. during harvest) or nothing (during lean season).

Limit the quantity of feed offered to the birds daily to at least 30% - 50% of their full daily intake. Allow a maximum of 30 - 40 g/bird/day from week 4 - 6 and gradually reducing the supplementary feeding. At day old to 4 weeks young chicks will receive feed according to their needs. As the birds grow, they will gradually get a smaller portion of what they need, until they only get between 1/3 and half of their needs as adults. Economic benefits are calculating the break-even point from the sale of eggs and live birds relative to the cost of disease control, housing, labour and feeds.

To ensure sustained egg and meat production, offer feeds on a continuous basis rather than large quantities during the harvest season and none during the lean season. Reduce the flock size when feed costs are high rather than reducing the amount of feed given to each bird.

It is important to use simple local measures to administer feeds. By using a table, you can calculate how much feed to use. Fig. shows calculated daily feed requirements based on a flock of 1 cock, 4 hens and 15 three week old chicks.

When using 1 kg containers (or a cup) measure the amount of feed the container holds, and then calculate the number of containers of feed needed daily. If the container holds 750 g of feed you will need to fill the container ¾ full. To keep the birds hungry for scavenging, offer half the feed in the morning, which will be equal to a half full container. To avoid competition, feed give the young chicks a little more than half in a separate shelter. Feed the hens next and finally before the feeder is empty feed the cock. When cocks are offered feed before the other birds, they over eat and leave less feed for the rest of the flock. Cocks are better at scavenging within the surrounding than the rest of the birds. Young chicks will need relatively more protein in their diet than adult birds hence the need to mix two different rations for young and adult birds, respectively. If you do not want to mix two different rations, you can alternatively give a little extra supplement of a good protein source to the young chickens, e.g. maggots and termites.

Adult birds are able to mix their own feed according to their needs. The best way to feed semi-intensively managed birds above 8 weeks of age is a cafeteria system, whereby various types of feeds are offered separately.

Feeders are divided into three compartments, enabling the poultry to choose the feed ingredient according to their needs.

An additional compartment for oil rich feeds may be added, e.g. tallow, oil cake meals, fish oil. By giving adult birds feeds in compartments, observe their feeding behaviour and avoid feeding unnecessary amounts and types of feed. For example, during harvest seasons you may find that they birds feed less on energy feeds in the evenings because there is plenty of cereal in the environment. You may also try out alternative feeds that the birds do not find tasteful. The cafeteria system is a good way of learning about your birds´ behaviour and taste.

Mixing and formulation of poultry feeds may be based on simple assumptions about the nutritional requirements of the birds and the content of the feedstuffs, or it may be calculated by use of computers and of so-called Least Cost Formulation Programmes (see reference list).

If possible, it often pays to have samples of feed ingredients analyzed at a national nutrition laboratory once or twice a year, depending on season and geographical area. National tables on nutritional content of feed ingredients can also be used.

It is important to realise that the nutritional requirements of the birds may be met in many ways by offering a large variety of feed ingredients. Feed ingredients to be included in the ration in each seasons, will be based on availability, quality and price.

Feeders and drinkers are similar across the production systems. Feeders and drinkers should always be kept clean to prevent the spread of diseases. They should be big enough for all birds of the same age to feed at the same time. One metre trough or a 35 cm (diameter) tube feeder is big enough for 20 adult birds to eat and for 40 to drink. Feeders and drinkers may easily be produced out of local materials. An empty tin placed upside down on a plate forms a drinker. By keeping the tin upside down the water is not contaminated with dirt. Make two small holes near the rim diagonal to each other. Pour clean water in the can. Put a flat plate with a small rim on top and turn the can and plate upside down, while pressing them against each other. Gently place the drinker on the ground. The rim of the plate should be low enough for young chicks to drink, but also high enough for adult birds to dip their wattles to keep them cool during the hot weather. Usually several waterers in different sizes should be used. Ensure that feeders minimize feed wastage. Feed wastage can be minimized when feeders are not filled to the top. Fill the feeders half full and check them regularly for refills.

Commercial feeders and drinkers may also be bought at the market, either in metal or plastic. However they are often expensive and normally not any better than locally produced feeders or drinkers.

Before buying, mixing, and storing feeds, it is important to understand some underlying principles of good feed management.

Scavenging poultry can get diseases by drinking waterfrom small ponds or puddles, as these can transfer water borne diseases and parasites. Poultry should get clean and fresh water all the time at the same place. This makes it is easy to medicate them.
Clean water should be given at least early in the morning and again in the evening when the birds are returning to the house for the night. It is important that all feeders and drinkers are kept clean to avoid disease infection through dirty feed and water.

Algae and water plants material have been considered appropriate for feeding poultry since they provide carotenoids and other fat-soluble vitamins.The carotenoids improve the colour of the egg yolks and together with vitamin E enhance the egg quality and the viability of the hatchlings. The deeper the egg yolk colour and pigmentation, the greater is the supply with vitamin A to the consumer.

Where available, the mixing of dried molasses with protein feeds have been shown to improve nutritional status of chicken.

Dung heaps from the waste of cattle, goats and sheep are excellent sources of insect protein but also may act s sources of parasites (e.g. coccidia) and other diseases.

Hybrid layers have quite easy feeding regimes, as the feed they need is manufactured and can be ready bought. However if you want to have nice yellow eggs also greens need to be provided. This can be any kind of edible green plants such as vegetable waste, grass, legumes etc. Preferably the greens should be hung up in a string so the birds have to jump a bit to reach them. This gives both good exercise and avoids too much mess to clean up later. Without greens the yolks of the eggs will not have as much colour.

Feed intake of laying hens depends on the quality of the feed, the body weight, its performance and environment. The following standards maybe used as a guide when feeding birds on a layers mash (2800 kcal ME);

Thus, if the average weight of the layer bird is 1.8 Kg, with a daily egg weight of 56 g and temperatures of 24 degree Celsius (normal room temperature), the feed required will be as follows;

Hybrid layers have quite easy feeding regimes, as the feed they need is commercial available. Where the market demands a golden yellow egg yolk, the birds need to be provided with a scavenging area in a free range environment or provided with green leaves or vegetables wastes such as grass, Lucerne or kales. Yolk colour maybe influenced by the genotype and the rate of egg production but feed composition is the major influencing factor. Both natural and synthetic sources of pigmenting egg yolks are in use commercially. Feeds stabilized with antioxidants such as vitamin E and A improve yolk colour pigmentation.

Along with their recommended broiler feed, the birds also highly appreciate additions of greens for pecking and absorption of higher amounts of vitamins. AIM: Production of big broiler capons of 2 kg live weight (1.5 kg dressed weight at 6 - 8 weeks) In order to reach this aim a feed needs to contain the following:

Symptoms: Bone deformation and feather loss. The birds walk with difficulty; they limp. Legs are deformed. Some deficiencies may cause feather loss. Treatment, if detected in time: Supplementary vitamins and calcium, fresh grass, and cow dung. Nutritional diseases may be avoided when the birds have access to normal vegetation and are therefore rare in scavenging chickens.

Salmonella and other pathogenic bacteria are present in the air and feaces of most animals, and can even be present in some of the food items bought in the shops. Bacterial diseases can be prevented through good hygiene and sanitation. Which means regular cleaning of chicken houses and runs, regular disinfections with lime, etc. Some diseases such as fowl typhoid can be prevented by vaccinating the birds.

Note: Do not vaccinate sick birds.

Parasites are organisms that live in or on a host (animal or plant); the parasite obtains nourishment from the host without benefiting or killing the host. Chicken parasites include lice and fleas, and worms living in the opening of organs. They may cause diseases and weaken the immune-system, making the chicken susceptible to other diseases.

The most common external parasites include lice, mites, fleas and ticks. They infest poultry houses and breed in cracks of the buildings. Infestation occurs through infected birds and pets, and affect all ages of birds but are severe in chicks.

Prevention can be done by maintaining cleaniliness of the poultry nests and houses and sealing cracks in the walls and on the floors.
Lice can be seen around eyes and nose. They lay eggs on the feathers and suck blood from chicken, causing discomfort.

Mites live in cracks in the poultry houses, not on the host. They suck blood from the birds at night and remain in the cracks during the day. In severe infections, birds become anaemic. Fleas can be seen on the belly. They suck blood from birds after which they drop and lay eggs in the litter. The eggs mature to adult fleas, which can survive for up to a month without feeding. Attacks all ages any time, but occurs more frequently in humid chicken houses with bad hygiene. Adult birds are clearly disturbed and spend a lot of time pecking and polishing feathers. Young chicks may die from anemia. If not treated, mites, lice, fleas, ticks will cause weight loss and possibly loss of feathers due to the parasites sucking blood and to skin irritation

Treatment: Spray or dust with pesticides, ashes, and oil. Ashes and sulphur powder may be used where the hens do dust bathing. Nests may be protected by putting a few tobacco leaves mixed with ashes in the nests.

Scaly leg is caused by an external parasite irritating the skin on the birds' legs. Symptoms: Legs clearly have scales and wounds and may become crippled in their appearance. Treatment: Dip the legs daily in kerosene, oil or in an insecticide until the scales disappear.

Newcaste is the most economically important and the only notifiable disease in chicken. Often 30-80% of the flock dies. It is spread by dogs, birds, wild birds and man. Prevention occurs only by early vaccination.
Symptoms: Respiratory stress, lack of appetite, green diarrhoea, nervous symptoms and high mortality. Death can also be sudden without symptoms.

Fowl pox is a chronic disease in adult birds and deadly among chicks and growers. It is caused by Pox virus and is transmitted by mosquito bites and mechanically through broken skin. Prevention occurs by clearing bushes.
Symptoms: Pimples or scabs on the birds combs, wattle and eyelids, high body temperature a watery discharge from eyes, difficulty in breathing indicated by whizzing sound and loss of appetite, tiredness followed by sudden death.

This is a contagious disease, acute in chicks and chronic in adult birds. Transmission occurs through faeces from sick birds, contamination of litter and by air.
Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, nasal discharge, wet droppings, poor egg shell with no death unless from secondary infection. Chicks gasp and cough, breath noisily, have watery eyes and nostrils, become depressed and huddle. Mortality can be as high as 25%.

This is an acute disease in chicken, turkeys, ducks and wild birds. The disease is found naturally in ducks and other waterfowl, and may spread as a highly contagious and potentially dangerous form to chickens. Infects through contaminated feed and drinking water from ponds. Transmission occurs through contaminated faeces, water and air.
Symptoms: Respiratory distress, sneezing, swollen head and face, emaciation and nervous disorder. High flock mortality, blue and swollen comb and wattles, Infected birds must be destroyed and location of infection quarantined. Always call a veterinarian if you suspect AI. Do not eat infected birds.

This disease is common in hatcheries. It affects young chicken 2 to 6 weeks old and it is rare in indigenous birds. Transmission occurs through feed, water and faeces.
Symptoms: Diarrhoea, sleepiness and depression, ruffled feathers and trembling of the head. Mortality is between 50% and 80%. The disease weakens the immun-system, making the birds more susceptible to other infections. It can be controlled by vaccinating the chicken when they are 2 to 6 weeks old though drinking water.

Seen only in birds older than 16 weeks. Initially the birds may show paralysis of one or both wings. Or one or both legs might be paralysed. The disease is a virus, so there is no treatment, but commercial vaccines are available.

Symptoms: Weakness, pale combs. Treatment: Supplementary vitamins. Prevention: Proper storage of feed to prevent growth of the fungi producing mycotoxins, the cause of the disease.

For scavenging poultry, you should avoid mixing vaccines with drinking water or feed, as it is difficult to give the right dose. Research has shown that protection against e.g. Newcastle disease is highly variable if vaccine is given through water or feed. Giving the right dose is essential for the vaccine to work properly. A too high dose of a live vaccine may kill a young chick, whereas a too low dose will not give adequate protection. Thus, it is important to consult a veterinarian or auxiliary veterinarians (barefoot vets, village vaccinators) for further advice before carrying out a vaccination.

Tools for application normally include a clean apron (green or other dark colour if possible) vaccine vial (B) stored in a cool box (C), soap to clean hands (D), clean needles (E), clean syringe (G) and a clean box for needles and syringe (F). Needles and syringe should be boiled in water for 5 minutes and cooled before re-use

It is important to treat the clean syringe and needle carefully. Do no touch the end of the needle after cleaning. Put the needle gently on the syringe holding the needle with the sharp end upwards . Put the vaccine vial upside-down and press the needle gently through the plastic seal of the vial cap. Pull the syringe handle gently down, while sucking the vaccine out of the vial until the syringe is full. Press the syringe handle back until you reach the right volume.

Ensure that there are no air bubbles trapped in the syringe or the needle. Air bubbles will give the wrong dose to the chickens. Normally a full 1 ml syringe will match 10 doses, one for each of ten adult birds. This however depends on the weight of the bird and the type of vaccine, and the application method.

The most common methods for vaccinating adult poultry are eye drops (A), injections in the breast or thigh muscles (B) or by piercing the skin of the wing (C). The most common methods for young chicks are eye drops and skin piercing. When the birds grow older, injections are given in the breast or thigh muscles. Depending on the vaccine type, eye drops may also be used for adult birds. Please consult the local veterinarian for clarification and technical information

Vaccines should be given either early morning, before letting the birds out of the chicken house or when the local birds are easy to catch resting in the trees. When vaccinating adult poultry for the first time, you should preferably be two persons, one holding the bird, the other one vaccinating.

Poultry play an important role improving the income of local population and providing high-quality protein (meat and eggs). It is important to know the market requirements, the investment costs, running costs, and expected revenue for the different products before starting any production activity.

Hence the need to carry out a detailed market study including a cost and benefit analysis, before choosing the system of production. Start with a production based on local breeds, local feeds and local demands before proceeding into a more sophisticated production system with improved breeds whose products require a stable market. In general the economic outcome as well as the necessary investments and risk involved in the production, will vary from one system to the other e.g A free range production system will have relatively low risks compare to an intensively managed systems (higher risk).

Live birds and fertile eggs are sold in village markets while hybrid table eggs are more often found in peri-urban and urban areas or along traffic corridors, where confined production systems can be managed. At village markets live birds are sold at highly variable prices depending on factors such as demand (high during festivals), size and weight, plumage and colour. Cocks are usually highly priced at most markets compared to hens. In certain regions e.g western Kenya indigenous chicken are also highly priced compared to exotic breeds irrespective of size. Likewise eggs from indigenous chicken are often more valued than table eggs from exotic hens, despite their smaller size. The taste and texture of meat and eggs from indigenous chicken are a major reason for the higher prices

Cockerels in a flock should be sold as soon as they attain the correct weight for the market. At the age of 6 months and a weight of approximately 1.5 kg, cocks are usually big enough for sale in prime markets. Retain a breeding cock for every 10 - 15 hens in the flock. Breeding cocks should be sold when mating is inefficient (low fertility/hatchability). Care should be taken not to return live birds from the market back to the farm due to disease. Old hens which are out of laying should also be sold. Restrain birds for sale in the night or attract them with feed then hold them using a piece of metal wire bent at the end.

Egg production starts at 20 - 24 weeks of age depending on genetic and environmental factor such as light and nutrition. After the onset of lay, peak production is attained within 6 to 10 weeks. During this stage the rate of lay will be greater than 80 to 90 % (hens laying an egg daily). This level of egg production will continue and then gradually decline until it is uneconomical to keep the hens.

Hens will lay eggs is sequences (clutches) of 1 - 30+ eggs each separated by a single or more pause days. The first egg of a clutch is laid early in the morning and the following eggs laid later on successive days because the time interval between successive eggs is longer than 24 hours with an average of 25 hours. A hybrid layer will produce 250 - 300 eggs per laying cycle.

Eggs should be collected and sold while fresh, particularly when cooling is not practiced. Collect eggs from the laying boxes at least once, but rather two times a day, and store them in a dark, cool place. Eggs should normally not be cleaned. When the eggs are dirty, clean them with a dry sponge or cloth and sell them immediately. Cleaning eggs with water often destroys the shells natural protection against infection.

Pack eggs in boxes, egg trays or other suitable containers to avoid breakage. Sell eggs in the market two to three times a week so as to create a name for selling fresh eggs. If profitable, grade your eggs according to size. Always keep records of your production and sale as explained under Record Keeping (verlinken mit Datasheet Record Keeping).

Chicken manure can be used in fish ponds. The manure is partly eaten by the fish while the rest is used by plants to grow and then eaten by fish. Dried poultry manure maybe used to feed ruminants (cattle and goats) in combination with grains and molasses. A biogas digester can be used to make gas from the manure. The slurry left over may also be used as fertilizer for use in crops or fish ponds.
100 layers will produce about 3 tons of manure during a 448 day period (from chicks to end of first laying period.
1000 broilers will produce about 1.1 tons of manure in 42 days.